Manunggul jar of Palawan

The figure on the rear is holding a steering paddle with both hands; the blade of the paddle is missing. Both figures appear to be wearing a band tied over the crown of the head and under the jaw. The manner in which the hands of the front figure are folded across the chest is a widespread practice in the Philippines and Southeast Asia when arranging the corpse. The prao is carved like a head with eyes, nose, and mouth. This motif of carving is still found on the traditional sea vessels of the Sulu Archipelago, Borneo, Malaysia. The execution of the ears, eyes, and nose has similarities with the contemporary woodcarvings of Taiwan, the Philippines, and many areas in Southeast Asia.

Various teams of international archaeologists have been quietly excavating in Cagayan Valley and Batanes over the past few years, trying to solve one of the most important Asian puzzles of all: the journey of homo sapiens into Southeast Asia and Oceania. Among the more interesting clues they are considering are a sophisticatedly-mummified corpse from Palawan, carbon-dated to 4,300BC (3 millennia older than Tutankhamen, and thus contemporaneous with opium-eating Mesopotamia); a bronze needle from Peñablanca, Cagayan dated to 2,280 BC (two millennia before our Metal Age); shell axes much older than those excavated from Oceania; and nine long-voyage Butuan boats, the oldest of which had a minimum carbon-date of 235AD.

The radiocarbon dates were obtained from the soot samples taken from the small earthenware vessel found inside one of the anthropomorphic burial jar.
These burial jars are made of earthenware designed and formed like human figures with complete facial characteristics. These were associated with metal implements; glass beads and bracelets; shell spoon, scoop, bracelets and pendants; earthenware potteries with incised designs and cut-out foot-rings;non-anthropomorphic jars.

 Anthropomorphic Burial Jars

Leta-leta cave archaeology

Leta-leta Cave, Langen Island, El Nido, Palawan was excavated in 1965 by Dr. Robert Fox. Leta-leta Cave is an important burial site belonging to the Late Neolithic Period where an assemblage of stone and shell artifacts associated with sophisticated pottery and nephrite adzes and axes were recovered. Other materials include stone ornaments and shell beads.

Shell Scoop

Baybayin or Alibata (known in Unicode as the Tagalog script) is a pre-Spanish Philippine writing system that originated from the Javanese script Old Kawi. The writing system is a member of the Brahmic family (and an offshoot of the Vatteluttu alphabet) and is believed to be in use as early as the 14th century. It continued to be in use during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines up until the late 19th Century. The term baybayin literally means syllables. Closely related scripts are Hanunóo, Buhid, and Tagbanwa.

The Philippine sailing ships, or praos, shown in La Perouse's drawings had double sails that seemed to rise well over a hundred feet from the surface of the water. Despite their large size these canoes also had double outriggers. Some larger sailing vessels mentioned by Antonio De Morga and others did not use outriggers. All the commentators agreed that the Filipinos had first contact were engaged in long-range trading with their Asian neighbors. The various kingdoms of the islands ranged as far West as the Maldives on the southwest coast of India and as far north as Japan. The earliest Spaniards commented on how peoples from both regions would regularly be blown from one region to another.

This weapon gave the Spanish much trouble when conquering the Philippines islands. The Moro type Lantaka is one of the most awesome weapons of the Pre-Spanish Filipinos. These guns were placed on flexible swivels which the Spanish technology never thought of at that time. This great construction allowed to quick track a moving target. Some LANTAKA's construction featured two revolving barrels. This cannons, probably the oldest form of portable ordnance in the world, was hand bored. these Lantakas eventaully reached South America and are considered ancestors of the Gatling gun.

Ceremonial, war, fishing, and hunting spears: Barbed, serpentine, harpoon, and compound types of iron and steel spearheads. No. 1. Hunting spear, harpoon type, bilaterally barbed. Moro, Mindanao. 2. Compound spearhead provided with three barbed prongs for use in fishing. Moro, Sulu Archipelago. 3. Serpentine form of steel spearhead socketed on palmwood shaft, shaft wound with plaited rattan and ferruled with brass. Mindanao. 4. Serpentine shape steel lance blade socketed on wooden shaft. Moro, Mindanao. 5. Iron war spear: Bilaterally recurved barbs, palmwood shaft wrapped with braided rattan, iron ferrule. 6. War spear: Hastate shape spear point provided with recurved guard barbs, metal tang inserted in hardwood shaft. Northern Luzon. 7-12. War spears: Multiple barbed iron spear points, short hardwood shafts, wrapped with braided rattan ferrules, iron cap or spud socketed on base of shafts. Igorot, northern Luzon. 11. Ceremonial spear provided with multiple barbs to frighten spirits or "anitos." Igorot, northern Luzon.

Types of knives and daggers
for cutting, piercing and stabbing

Types of wavy and straight-edged krisses. Moro, Mindanao, and Sulu Archipelago. No. 1. Old type of serpentine grooved blade provided with ornamental guard piece and sword breaker fastened with single stirrup; round wooden grip covered with bands of braided rattan. Moro, Mindanao. 2. Datto's kris, of recent production; blade inlaid with sinuous, dragonlike pattern in yellow metal; grip of wood. Lake Lanao, Moro, Mindanao. 3. Serpentine blade inlaid with figured patterns in yellow brass; improvised handle of wood. Moro, Mindanao. 4. Long, tapering serpentine blade; curved guard of silver; elaborately carved horn handle. Kris type showing Spanish influence. 5. Slightly sinuous steel blade; handle wrapped with braided waxed cord on grip section; carved pommel of sea cow ivory; plain old-style wood scabbard. Moro. 6. Straight-edged, slightly curved blade; handle covered with braided cord bands which also serve to fasten spiked stirrup extension for fastening guard and handle to blade. Moro. 7. Serpentine blade; hardwood handle overlaid with banded sheet silver and braided silver cord; crutch-shaped pommel of solid silver. Jolo Island. 8. Serpentine blade; grooved and inlaid with gold metal; single stirrup; wood handle banded with silver and wrapped with silver braid; carved cockatoo-shape ivory pommel.

Even though early history is clearly one of tribal rule that engaged in a bustling economy, European historians credit the voyages of Magellan, and succeeding expeditions from Spain, as the official accreditation and discovery of the region. When he was credited with the discovery of the Philippines, it was already inhabited by peoples whose culture and modernization was by no means that far behind most other areas of the world.

The Spanish were surprised by the advances made by these people. For instance, the people of this land were skilled in weapons making and other types of metal works. The Filipinos were already making their own cannons -- large one of iron and small, portable, ones of bronze. They were surprised to find a swivel type gun, known as a 'lantaka' which allowed the gunner to track a moving target.

These 'primitive' peoples, found by Magellan, were also 'peoples of the sea'. They used a navigational instrument similar to a compass and were much more skilled and experienced in all types of fishing and fisheries activities.

This 'discovery', the historians point out, is relevant, because it is what placed the Philippine archipelago on the maps of the world.

It occurred when he, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer, landed at Homonhon Islet, near present day Samar, claiming the lands for Spain. It is believed that this event occurred on the 17 day of March in the year 1521. He was later killed on the Mactan Island of Cebu in a clash with native warriors who were led by a chieftain named Lapu-Lapu.

During this time in world history, Spain was in fierce competition with Portugal to dominate, through colonization, the lands of the world.

Clearly the Philippines was a prize catch for Spain, based on its number of islands and its size; which, at the time, was estimated to be larger than it actually was. However size alone was not what made it a great prize -- its location made it a worthy and valuable catch. The archipelago was formally named Las Felipinas, in 1543 by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos who followed Magellan to this territory. It was named in honor of Spain's King Philip II (actually the Crown Prince, who was actually excommunicated from the Catholic Church, by the Pope Paul IV in 1552). It was known to be composed of thousands of islands and islets (now known to be 7,107), and spanning over eighteen hundred (actually 1854) kilometers from north to south, stretching from China to the north to the Indonesian archipelago at the south. Permanent Spanish occupation began in 1565, and by 1571 the entire country, except for the strictly Islamic Sulu archipelago, was under Spanish control.

Spanish colonizers succeeded in introducing Christianity to the islands. Still today, Christianity represents over 85% of religious beliefs. They were highly successful in the region of modern day Luzon and Visayas but were unsuccessful in Mindanao, south region, where Moslems staved off the Spanish efforts.

Of course there are many recorded horror stories, of historically significant, where the Spanish forced the induction of Christianity upon the 'heathens' of these islands -- leading to thousands of deaths and tortures of the residents of the islands.

Still today, many small towns and remote barrios celebrate, through re-enactment in fiesta stage plays, called moro-moro, the forced conversion of the peoples to Christianity by the threatened force of the Spaniards. These plays always end the same way -- most of the people convert and find 'happiness' in their new found religion, while the remaining are either killed or flee to the mountains, to be hounded by the Spaniards the rest of their lives.

Dr. Jose P. Rizal

The Filipino independence movement was in a state of growth during this same period, ultimately leading to the Philippine Revolution. After Rizal's arrest and exile, Andres Bonifacio, a self-educated man of humble origins, founded a secret society, the Katipunan, in Manila. This organization, modeled in part on Masonic lodges, was committed to winning independence from Spain. Rizal, Lopez Jaena, del Pilar, and other leaders of the Propaganda Movement had been Masons, and Masonry was regarded by the Catholic Church as heretical. The Katipunan, like the Masonic lodges, had secret passwords and ceremonies, and its members were organized into ranks or degrees, each having different colored hoods, special passwords, and secret formulas. New members went through a rigorous initiation, which concluded with the pacto de sangre, or blood compact. The Katipunan spread gradually from the Tondo district of Manila, where Bonifacio had founded it, to the provinces, and by August 1896 - on the eve of the revolt against Spain - it had some 30,000 members, both men and women. Most of them were members of the lower-and lower-middle-income strata, including peasants. The nationalist movement had effectively moved from the closed circle of prosperous ilustrados to a truly popular base of support. The Revolution, itself, was first led by Andres Bonifacio and then later it was taken up by Emilio Aguinaldo.

The 1896 Uprising and Rizal's Execution

During the early years of the Katipunan, Rizal remained in exile at Dapitan. He had promised the Spanish governor that he would not attempt an escape, which, in that remote part of the country, would have been relatively easy. He retained, to the very end, a faith in the decency of Spanish "men of honor". Consequently, an informer had tipped off a Spanish friar about the KKK society's existence, and Bonifacio, his hand forced, proclaimed the revolution, attacking Spanish military installations on August 29, 1896. The governor,  apparently forced by reactionary elements, ordered Rizal's arrest en route despite nil substantial evidence to link him to the revolt. He was sent back to Manila to be tried by a military court as an accomplice of the insurrection.

Under a new governor, who apparently had been sponsored as a hard-line candidate by the religious orders, Rizal was brought before a military court on fabricated charges of involvement with the Katipunan. The events of 1872 repeated themselves. A brief trial was held on December 26 and - with little chance to defend himself - Rizal was found guilty and sentenced to death. On December 30, 1896, he was brought out to the Luneta and executed by a firing squad.

Rizal's death filled the rebels with new determination. At a convention held at Tejeros, the Katipunan's headquarters in March 1897, delegates elected Aguinaldo president and Bonifacio to the post of director of the interior.

Declaration for Independence

During this same period Aguinaldo, who was in Hong Kong, was encouraged to return to the Philippines by the United States as the Spanish-American War had moved from the Caribbean to the Philippines. Once back home, General Emilio Aguinaldo verbally proclaimed independence for the people of the Philippines on 12th of June 1898, from the window of his home in Cavite (South of Manila).

With the Spanish defeated, on 14 August 1898, America immediately established a military law government in the Philippines declaring its rule by a military governor. This new dictatorship, by a foreign power continued until the beginning of the Philippine-American War.

Once again, the Filipinos were put in a position to fight for their independence. On 4 February 1899, an American private fired upon and killed a Filipino soldier for simply crossing the San Juan bridge, triggering the War. This new fight for independence, now against their allies in past battles, the Americans, was waged for six years, ending in 1905. Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, during the war, and when war ended (1901), he swore allegiance to the United States, which then annexed the Philippines, retiring from public life.

With the fighting stopped, peace was finally at hand, with everyone focusing on peace time events. Finally, the Philippines were able to focus on the future, leading to decades of progress.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt

In March 1934, then President of America Franklin D. Roosevelt, signed the Tydings-McDuffie Law. It provided for the creation of a Philippine Constitution and the establishment of a Commonwealth government that would run for 10 years in "preparation" for a complete political independence.

In 1935, while under American rule/guidance, President Roosevelt approved the Philippine Constitution, and the country established its own formal government. It was a Commonwealth type government, authorized by Constitution. Manuel L. Quezon was sworn in as President of the Philippine Commonwealth, and his vice-president as Sergio Osmena. This was the beginning of the transitional phase to full independence for the Philippines.

President Manuel L. Quezon

But war returned to the islands in 1941. Japan responded to American General Douglas MacArthur's declaration of Manila as an "Open" city, by bombing Manila destroying much of the city. Japan immediately and brutally continued to annex the Philippines. The peoples of the Philippines, in alliance with American forces, fought some fierce and bloody battles during this period. The battles were focused in the northern region of the country at Bataan and Corregidor.

On April 9,1942, the Japanese defeated the Filipino and American troops at Bataan. With the defeat of Bataan, the in-famous "Death March" of Filipino and American soldiers had begun.

--- it was also during this time, the famous speech of General Douglas MacArthur was made, "I came out of Bataan and I shall return" (while on exile in Australia) few weeks before the Fall of Bataan.

Then in May, 1942, the Filipino-American defense forces surrendered to the Japanese Imperial Forces at Corregidor.

Although the Filipinos and Americans had fought gallantly, the Japanese were clearly the victors. With surrender, many Filipinos fled to the hills, waging guerrilla war against the Japanese which lasted about four years.

During these years, the Japanese used the people of the Philippines as cheap, often forced, labor.

The Imperial Forces forced many Filipino woman into work performing 'comfort' services. These woman were often placed in houses of 'prostitution' and forced to perform sex acts for the Imperial Japanese soldiers.

In late 1943, under Imperial Forces rule, a Japanese sponsored National Assembly was held making Jose P. Laurel the president and Benigno Aquino Sr. and Ramon Avancena vice-presidents of the Assembly.

On October 20,1944, Allied forces under MacArthur's command, landed at Leyte Island - thereby fulfilling MacArthur's vow to return to the Philippines. The "Battle of Leyte Gulf", considered the greatest naval battle during the history of WW2. The victors were the Filipinos and Americans.

This defeat is believed to be the most important one in Philippine history, leading the way to the liberation of the Philippines.

President Sergio Osmeña

President Manual Roxas

President Elpidio Quirino

Ferdinand Marcos a Nacionalista Party leader, came to dominate the political scene for the next two decades, beginning with his election to the presidency in 1965. During his first term, Marcos initiated ambitious public works projects that improved the general quality of life while providing generous pork-barrel benefits for his friends. Marcos perceived that his promised land reform program would alienate the politically all-powerful landowner elite and thus it was never forcefully implemented. He lobbied strenuously for economic and military aid from the United States while resisting significant involvement in the Second Indochina War (1954­75). In 1967 the Philippines became a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Marcos became the first president to be reelected (in 1969), but early in his second term economic growth slowed, optimism faded, and crime rates increased. In addition, a new communist insurgency, this time--starting in 1968--led by the new Communist Party of the Philippines-Marxist-Leninist and its military arm, the New People's Army, was on the rise. In 1969 the Moro National Liberation Front was founded and conducted an insurgency in Muslim areas. Political violence blamed on leftists, but probably initiated by government agents provocateurs, led Marcos to suspend habeas corpus as a prelude to martial law.

President Ferdinand Marcos

The beginning of the end of the Marcos era occurred when his chief political rival, Liberal Party leader Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, who had been jailed by Marcos for eight years, was assassinated as he disembarked from an airplane at the Manila International Airport on August 21, 1983, following medical treatment in the United States. Marcos cronies were charged with this crime but were acquitted. Aquino, however, became a martyr and his murder the focus of popular indignation against a corrupt regime. The Catholic Church, a coalition of old political opposition groups, the business elite, the left wing, and even factions of the armed forces all began to exert pressure on the regime.

Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino

Corazon Aquino had wide popular support but no political organization. Her vice president, Salvador H. "Doy" Laurel, had an organization but little popular support. Enrile and Ramos also had large stakes in what they saw as a coalition government. The coalition unraveled quickly, and there were several attempts, including unsuccessful military coups, to oust Aquino. She survived her fractious term, however, and was succeeded in the 1992 election by General Fidel Ramos, who had served loyally as chief of staff of the armed forces and secretary of national defense under Aquino.

Fidel Ramos worked at coalition building and overcoming the divisiveness of the Aquino years. Mutinous right-wing soldiers, communist insurgents, and Muslim separatists were convinced to cease their armed activities against the government and were granted amnesties. In an act of reconciliation, Ramos allowed the remains of Ferdinand Marcos--he had died in exile in the United States in 1989--to be returned to the Philippines for burial in 1993. Efforts by supporters of Ramos to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests supported by Cardinal Sin and Corazon Aquino, leading Ramos to declare he would not run again. And succeeded by Joseph Estrada for the Presidential seat.

President Fidel Ramos

Joseph Estrada, who had served as Ramos's vice president and enjoyed widespread popularity, was elected president in 1998. Within a year, however, Estrada's popularity sharply declined amid allegations of cronyism and corruption and failure to remedy the problems of poverty. Once again, street rallies supported by Cardinal Sin and Corazon Aquino took place. Then, in 2000 Senate investigators accused Estrada of having accepted bribes from illegal gambling businesses. Following an abortive Senate impeachment trial, growing street protests, and the withdrawal of support by the armed forces, Estrada was forced out of office on January 20, 2001. Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure.

President Joseph Estrada

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (is the daughter of the late President Diosdado Macapagal). Her accession to power was further legitimated by the mid-term congressional and local elections, when her coalition later won an overwhelming victory, but the elections were fraught with allegations of coercion, fraud, and vote buying. Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion, as a result of which charges were filed against more than 1,000 individuals. Arroyo had declared in December 2002 that she would not contest the May 2004 presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to run. She was reelected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. With this new mandate, she was able to move with greater assurance on the political and economic reform agenda that had stalled during her first term in office.